On the basis of low serum, hair and white blood cell levels, it would
appear that at least 5 mg per day of additional zinc is required in pregnancy,
which is not covered by the diet or available from material reserves. The risk
of deficiency is real, and is associated with miscarriage, toxaemia of
pregnancy, treatment-resistant anaemia, abnormally prolonged pregnancy and
difficult delivery. In babies it is associated with decreased immunity,
learning or memory disorders or birth defects. Favier A et al: Effects of zinc
deficiency in pregnancy on the mother and the newborn. Rev Fe Gynecol Obstet
85(1):13-27, 1990.
High-dosage iron and folic acid supplements prescribed by doctors for
pregnant women can seriously lower zinc levels or inhibit zinc absorption. Am
J Clin Nutr 43:258-62, 1986.
Serum selenium levels were measured in women who had miscarried, and
compared with pregnant women and healthy volunteers. Although it is usual for
selenium levels to decline in pregnancy, those who had miscarried had
significantly lower selenium levels than normal. The authors recommend that
research to assess the benefits of selenium supplementation should be carried
out. Barrington JW et al: Selenium deficiency and miscarriage: a possible
link? Br J Obstet Gynaecol 103(2):130-2, 1996.
Cigarette-smoking habits were compared in 574 women who had suffered
miscarriages, and 320 control women who had carried a baby to term. Women who
had miscarried tended to smoke more often than controls. Smoking mothers had
an 80 per cent higher risk of miscarriage than non-smoking mothers. Kline J et
al: Smoking: a risk factor for spontaneous aboartion. N Engl J Med
297(15):793-6, 1977.
Alcohol and smoking habits were recorded in 32,019 women at their first
visit to an ante-natal clinic and compared with rates of miscarriage. Women
consuming 1-2 alcoholic drinks daily were twice as likely as non-drinkers to
miscarry in the second trimester of pregnancy (15-27 weeks), and women
consuming more than three drinks daily had more than three times the risk of
miscarriage. Harlap S et al: Alcohol, smoking, and incidence of spontaneous
abortions in the first and second trimester. Lancet 2(8187):173-6, 1980.
A meta-analysis was carried out on trials using calcium supplements to
treat pre-eclampsia (a condition involving high blood pressure in pregnancy).
The pooled analysis showed a significant reduction in systolic and diastolic
blood pressure. Compared with placebo, calcium supplementation reduced the
risk of pre-eclampsia by more than 60 per cent. Bucher HC et al: Effect of
calcium supplementation on pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia: a
meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 275(14):1113-7, 1996.
Eclampsia, in which high blood pressure is associated with convulsions in
pregnancy and can lead to death, may be treated with magnesium, the
tranquillizer diazepam or the anti-convulsant drug phenytoin. Outcomes of
these three treatments were compared in 1,687 randomized women. Women
allocated magnesium treatment had a 52 per cent lower rate of recurrent
convulsions than those allocated diazepam and a 67 per cent lower risk
compared with phenytoin. Women allocated magnesium treatment were also less
likely to develop complications and to be admitted to intensive care, as were
their babies. Which anticonvulsant for women with eclampsia? Evidence from the
Collaborative Eclampsia Trial. Lancet 345(8969):1455-63, 1995.
